Implement affine transform geometry

crates/obscura-render/src/dom.rs

@@ -247,6 +247,10 @@ pub struct DomLayout {
     /// px. Only nodes with a non-zero accumulation are present; paint shifts
     /// each box by this to reach screen space.
     pub translates: HashMap<NodeId, (f32, f32)>,
+    /// Accumulated authored transforms in immutable document coordinates.
+    /// Entries exist only inside a non-identity transformed subtree, keeping
+    /// ordinary documents on the allocation-free identity path.
+    pub transforms: HashMap<NodeId, crate::Affine2>,
     /// Per-word geometry for text nodes: a text DOM node lays out as one
     /// taffy leaf per word (see `build_text_words`), each wrapping
     /// independently within its container, so its rendered content is a list
@@ -489,6 +493,7 @@ impl DomLayout {
                 &self.rects,
                 &self.styles,
                 &self.translates,
+                &self.transforms,
                 &mut right,
                 &mut bottom,
             );
@@ -653,6 +658,7 @@ fn accumulate_scrolling_overflow(
     rects: &HashMap<NodeId, Rect>,
     styles: &HashMap<NodeId, crate::LayoutStyle>,
     translates: &HashMap<NodeId, (f32, f32)>,
+    transforms: &HashMap<NodeId, crate::Affine2>,
     right: &mut f32,
     bottom: &mut f32,
 ) {
@@ -661,13 +667,11 @@ fn accumulate_scrolling_overflow(
     }
 
     let translated = rects.get(&id).map(|rect| {
-        let (tx, ty) = translates.get(&id).copied().unwrap_or((0.0, 0.0));
-        Rect {
-            x: rect.x + tx,
-            y: rect.y + ty,
-            width: rect.width,
-            height: rect.height,
-        }
+        transforms
+            .get(&id)
+            .copied()
+            .map(|transform| transform.map_rect(*rect))
+            .unwrap_or(*rect)
     });
     if let Some(overflow) = translated {
         let visible = if let Some(clip) = inherited_clip {
@@ -700,7 +704,7 @@ fn accumulate_scrolling_overflow(
     };
     for child in tree.children(id) {
         accumulate_scrolling_overflow(
-            tree, child, child_clip, fixed, rects, styles, translates, right, bottom,
+            tree, child, child_clip, fixed, rects, styles, translates, transforms, right, bottom,
         );
     }
 }
@@ -1092,6 +1096,8 @@ fn resolve_clip_rects(
     styles: &HashMap<NodeId, crate::LayoutStyle>,
     clip_rects: &mut HashMap<NodeId, Option<OverflowClip>>,
     translates: &mut HashMap<NodeId, (f32, f32)>,
+    parent_transform: crate::Affine2,
+    transforms: &mut HashMap<NodeId, crate::Affine2>,
     root_font_size: f32,
     viewport: (f32, f32),
 ) {
@@ -1106,6 +1112,14 @@ fn resolve_clip_rects(
     if tx != 0.0 || ty != 0.0 {
         translates.insert(id, (tx, ty));
     }
+    let own_transform = styles.get(&id).map_or(crate::Affine2::IDENTITY, |style| {
+        let rect = rects.get(&id).copied().unwrap_or_default();
+        resolved_transform_matrix(style, &rect, root_font_size, viewport)
+    });
+    let transform = parent_transform.then(own_transform);
+    if !transform.is_identity() {
+        transforms.insert(id, transform);
+    }
     // Overflow propagated from html/body establishes the root scrolling
     // viewport. It is anchored to the capture surface, not to document
     // coordinates, and the pixmap already supplies that viewport clip.
@@ -1134,6 +1148,8 @@ fn resolve_clip_rects(
             styles,
             clip_rects,
             translates,
+            transform,
+            transforms,
             root_font_size,
             viewport,
         );
@@ -1146,21 +1162,26 @@ fn resolved_own_translate(
     root_font_size: f32,
     viewport: (f32, f32),
 ) -> (f32, f32) {
-    let mut offset = style
-        .transform_translate
-        .map(|(x, y)| {
-            (
-                resolve_translate(x, rect.width),
-                resolve_translate(y, rect.height),
-            )
-        })
-        .unwrap_or((0.0, 0.0));
-    let Some((x, y)) = style.individual_translate else {
-        return offset;
-    };
+    let transform = resolved_transform_matrix(style, rect, root_font_size, viewport);
+    if transform.is_translation() {
+        (transform.e, transform.f)
+    } else {
+        (0.0, 0.0)
+    }
+}
+
+fn resolve_transform_length(
+    length: &crate::TransformLength,
+    axis: usize,
+    style: &crate::LayoutStyle,
+    rect: &Rect,
+    root_font_size: f32,
+    viewport: (f32, f32),
+) -> f32 {
+    let basis = if axis == 0 { rect.width } else { rect.height };
     let em = style.font_size.unwrap_or(16.0);
-    let resolve_axis = |axis: usize, value: crate::Dimension, basis: f32| {
-        style.individual_translate_expressions[axis]
+    length
+        .expression
         .as_deref()
         .and_then(|expression| {
             crate::style::resolve_contextual_length(
@@ -1172,11 +1193,81 @@ fn resolved_own_translate(
                 basis,
             )
         })
-            .unwrap_or_else(|| resolve_translate(value, basis))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| resolve_translate(length.value, basis))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn resolved_transform_matrix(
+    style: &crate::LayoutStyle,
+    rect: &Rect,
+    root_font_size: f32,
+    viewport: (f32, f32),
+) -> crate::Affine2 {
+    let mut matrix = crate::Affine2::IDENTITY;
+    if let Some((x, y)) = style.individual_translate {
+        let lengths = [
+            crate::TransformLength {
+                value: x,
+                expression: style.individual_translate_expressions[0].clone(),
+            },
+            crate::TransformLength {
+                value: y,
+                expression: style.individual_translate_expressions[1].clone(),
+            },
+        ];
+        matrix = matrix.then(crate::Affine2::translate(
+            resolve_transform_length(&lengths[0], 0, style, rect, root_font_size, viewport),
+            resolve_transform_length(&lengths[1], 1, style, rect, root_font_size, viewport),
+        ));
+    }
+    if let Some(angle) = style.individual_rotate {
+        matrix = matrix.then(crate::Affine2::rotate(angle));
+    }
+    if let Some((x, y)) = style.individual_scale {
+        matrix = matrix.then(crate::Affine2::scale(x, y));
+    }
+    matrix = matrix.then(resolved_transform_property_matrix(
+        style,
+        rect,
+        root_font_size,
+        viewport,
+    ));
+    if matrix.is_identity() {
+        return matrix;
+    }
+    let (origin_x, origin_y) = style.transform_origin.unwrap_or((
+        crate::Dimension::Percent(0.5),
+        crate::Dimension::Percent(0.5),
+    ));
+    matrix.around((
+        rect.x + resolve_translate(origin_x, rect.width),
+        rect.y + resolve_translate(origin_y, rect.height),
+    ))
+}
+
+/// Resolved value of the `transform` property alone. Individual transform
+/// properties and `transform-origin` are intentionally excluded: CSSOM
+/// serializes them as separate computed properties.
+pub(crate) fn resolved_transform_property_matrix(
+    style: &crate::LayoutStyle,
+    rect: &Rect,
+    root_font_size: f32,
+    viewport: (f32, f32),
+) -> crate::Affine2 {
+    let mut matrix = crate::Affine2::IDENTITY;
+    for operation in &style.transform_ops {
+        let operation = match operation {
+            crate::TransformOp::Translate(x, y) => crate::Affine2::translate(
+                resolve_transform_length(x, 0, style, rect, root_font_size, viewport),
+                resolve_transform_length(y, 1, style, rect, root_font_size, viewport),
+            ),
+            crate::TransformOp::Scale(x, y) => crate::Affine2::scale(*x, *y),
+            crate::TransformOp::Rotate(angle) => crate::Affine2::rotate(*angle),
+            crate::TransformOp::Skew(x, y) => crate::Affine2::skew(*x, *y),
+            crate::TransformOp::Matrix(matrix) => *matrix,
         };
-    offset.0 += resolve_axis(0, x, rect.width);
-    offset.1 += resolve_axis(1, y, rect.height);
-    offset
+        matrix = matrix.then(operation);
+    }
+    matrix
 }
 
 /// The CSS overflow clip is the padding box, not the outer border box. This is
@@ -4086,6 +4177,7 @@ fn layout_dom_once(
 
     let mut clip_rects = HashMap::new();
     let mut translates = HashMap::new();
+    let mut transforms = HashMap::new();
     if let Some(root_id) = root {
         let root_font_size = styles
             .get(&root_id)
@@ -4101,6 +4193,8 @@ fn layout_dom_once(
             &styles,
             &mut clip_rects,
             &mut translates,
+            crate::Affine2::IDENTITY,
+            &mut transforms,
             root_font_size,
             viewport,
         );
@@ -4211,6 +4305,7 @@ fn layout_dom_once(
             custom_properties,
             clip_rects,
             translates,
+            transforms,
             text_runs,
             #[cfg(feature = "paint")]
             text_engine: engine,
@@ -6514,9 +6609,10 @@ fn pseudo_requires_generated_box(style: &crate::LayoutStyle, content: Option<&st
         || style.box_shadow.is_some()
         || !style.border_model.radii.is_zero()
         || style.overflow_hidden
-        || style.transform_translate.is_some()
+        || !style.transform_ops.is_empty()
         || style.individual_translate.is_some()
-        || style.transform_scale.is_some()
+        || style.individual_rotate.is_some()
+        || style.individual_scale.is_some()
 }
 
 fn has_in_flow_generated_pseudo(pseudo: Option<&crate::LayoutStyle>) -> bool {

crates/obscura-render/src/lib.rs

@@ -176,6 +176,160 @@ pub struct Rect {
     pub height: f32,
 }
 
+/// One two-dimensional affine transform in CSS pixel coordinates.
+///
+/// The six components use the CSS `matrix(a,b,c,d,e,f)` convention:
+/// `x' = a*x + c*y + e`, `y' = b*x + d*y + f`. Keeping this renderer-owned
+/// type independent of the raster backend lets layout geometry, scrolling
+/// overflow, CSSOM, and paint consume exactly the same resolved transform.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Affine2 {
+    pub a: f32,
+    pub b: f32,
+    pub c: f32,
+    pub d: f32,
+    pub e: f32,
+    pub f: f32,
+}
+
+impl Default for Affine2 {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::IDENTITY
+    }
+}
+
+impl Affine2 {
+    pub const IDENTITY: Self = Self {
+        a: 1.0,
+        b: 0.0,
+        c: 0.0,
+        d: 1.0,
+        e: 0.0,
+        f: 0.0,
+    };
+
+    /// Compose `self(other(point))`.
+    pub fn then(self, other: Self) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            a: self.a * other.a + self.c * other.b,
+            b: self.b * other.a + self.d * other.b,
+            c: self.a * other.c + self.c * other.d,
+            d: self.b * other.c + self.d * other.d,
+            e: self.a * other.e + self.c * other.f + self.e,
+            f: self.b * other.e + self.d * other.f + self.f,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn translate(x: f32, y: f32) -> Self {
+        Self { e: x, f: y, ..Self::IDENTITY }
+    }
+
+    pub fn scale(x: f32, y: f32) -> Self {
+        Self { a: x, d: y, ..Self::IDENTITY }
+    }
+
+    pub fn rotate(degrees: f32) -> Self {
+        let (sin, cos) = degrees.to_radians().sin_cos();
+        Self { a: cos, b: sin, c: -sin, d: cos, e: 0.0, f: 0.0 }
+    }
+
+    pub fn skew(x_degrees: f32, y_degrees: f32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            a: 1.0,
+            b: y_degrees.to_radians().tan(),
+            c: x_degrees.to_radians().tan(),
+            d: 1.0,
+            e: 0.0,
+            f: 0.0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn around(self, origin: (f32, f32)) -> Self {
+        Self::translate(origin.0, origin.1)
+            .then(self)
+            .then(Self::translate(-origin.0, -origin.1))
+    }
+
+    pub fn map_point(self, x: f32, y: f32) -> (f32, f32) {
+        (self.a * x + self.c * y + self.e, self.b * x + self.d * y + self.f)
+    }
+
+    pub fn map_rect(self, rect: Rect) -> Rect {
+        let points = [
+            self.map_point(rect.x, rect.y),
+            self.map_point(rect.x + rect.width, rect.y),
+            self.map_point(rect.x, rect.y + rect.height),
+            self.map_point(rect.x + rect.width, rect.y + rect.height),
+        ];
+        let left = points.iter().map(|point| point.0).fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min);
+        let top = points.iter().map(|point| point.1).fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min);
+        let right = points.iter().map(|point| point.0).fold(f32::NEG_INFINITY, f32::max);
+        let bottom = points.iter().map(|point| point.1).fold(f32::NEG_INFINITY, f32::max);
+        Rect {
+            x: left,
+            y: top,
+            width: (right - left).max(0.0),
+            height: (bottom - top).max(0.0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn inverse(self) -> Option<Self> {
+        let determinant = self.a * self.d - self.b * self.c;
+        if !determinant.is_finite() || determinant.abs() < 1.0e-8 {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let inverse = 1.0 / determinant;
+        Some(Self {
+            a: self.d * inverse,
+            b: -self.b * inverse,
+            c: -self.c * inverse,
+            d: self.a * inverse,
+            e: (self.c * self.f - self.d * self.e) * inverse,
+            f: (self.b * self.e - self.a * self.f) * inverse,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_identity(self) -> bool {
+        (self.a - 1.0).abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && self.b.abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && self.c.abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && (self.d - 1.0).abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && self.e.abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && self.f.abs() < f32::EPSILON
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_translation(self) -> bool {
+        (self.a - 1.0).abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && self.b.abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && self.c.abs() < f32::EPSILON
+            && (self.d - 1.0).abs() < f32::EPSILON
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct TransformLength {
+    pub value: Dimension,
+    pub expression: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl TransformLength {
+    pub fn px(value: f32) -> Self {
+        Self { value: Dimension::Px(value), expression: None }
+    }
+}
+
+/// One authored operation in a `transform` function list. Source order is
+/// significant and is intentionally retained until the final reference box
+/// resolves percentage translations.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub enum TransformOp {
+    Translate(TransformLength, TransformLength),
+    Scale(f32, f32),
+    Rotate(f32),
+    Skew(f32, f32),
+    Matrix(Affine2),
+}
+
 impl Rect {
     /// The overlap of two rects, or `None` if they do not intersect (or the
     /// overlap is degenerate). Used to accumulate an ancestor clip chain for
@@ -993,35 +1147,25 @@ pub struct LayoutStyle {
     /// `Fill` (default) stretches to the box, the rest preserve aspect ratio.
     /// Only consulted in the image paint path.
     pub object_fit: ObjectFit,
-    /// `transform: translate(x[, y])` / `translateX` / `translateY`, stored
-    /// unresolved as (dx, dy). Applied at paint time as an offset to the
-    /// element's own box AND its whole descendant subtree; percentages resolve
-    /// against the element's own border-box size then. This is what makes the
-    /// canonical `translate(-50%,-50%)` centering of an absolutely-positioned
-    /// box land in the right place, and moves a `translate(-9999px,0)`
-    /// off-screen skip-link out of view instead of painting it on-screen. Not
-    /// inherited (transform is a non-inherited property).
-    pub transform_translate: Option<(Dimension, Dimension)>,
+    /// Ordered operations in the non-inherited `transform` property. Length
+    /// percentages remain unresolved until the final border box is known.
+    pub transform_ops: Vec<TransformOp>,
     /// Individual CSS `translate` property. This composes independently with
     /// the legacy `transform` property, so `transform:none` must not clear it.
     /// Functional values are retained separately until the final border box
     /// is known because percentages resolve against that box's own axes.
     pub individual_translate: Option<(Dimension, Dimension)>,
     pub individual_translate_expressions: [Option<String>; 2],
+    /// Individual CSS `rotate` property, in degrees. It composes after
+    /// individual translate and before individual scale and `transform`.
+    pub individual_rotate: Option<f32>,
+    /// Individual CSS `scale` property. Kept separate from `transform` so
+    /// declaration order cannot accidentally overwrite either property.
+    pub individual_scale: Option<(f32, f32)>,
     /// Independent CSS-property triggers that establish containing blocks for
     /// absolute and fixed descendants. Kept as a bitset so `filter:none`
     /// cannot clear a transform/containment trigger from another property.
     pub containing_block_triggers: u16,
-    /// `transform: scale(sx[, sy])` / `scaleX` / `scaleY`, or the individual
-    /// `scale` property, captured as (sx, sy). Raster-image paint applies it to
-    /// the element's subtree together with [`LayoutStyle::transform_projection`].
-    pub transform_scale: Option<(f32, f32)>,
-    /// The affine x/y projection of authored `rotate`, `rotateX`, `rotateY`,
-    /// and `rotateZ` transform functions. CSS transforms without perspective
-    /// remain affine when their input plane has z=0, so this preserves modern
-    /// 3D-tilted image cards without introducing a full scene graph.
-    /// Stored as `[a, b, c, d]` for `x'=a*x+c*y`, `y'=b*x+d*y`.
-    pub transform_projection: Option<[f32; 4]>,
     /// Authored `transform-origin`, unresolved so percentages use the final
     /// border-box dimensions. `None` is the CSS initial value, 50% 50%.
     pub transform_origin: Option<(Dimension, Dimension)>,
@@ -1060,6 +1204,8 @@ pub(crate) const CB_TRIGGER_CONTAIN: u16 = 1 << 4;
 pub(crate) const CB_TRIGGER_WILL_CHANGE: u16 = 1 << 5;
 pub(crate) const CB_TRIGGER_CONTENT_VISIBILITY: u16 = 1 << 6;
 pub(crate) const CB_TRIGGER_TRANSLATE: u16 = 1 << 7;
+pub(crate) const CB_TRIGGER_ROTATE: u16 = 1 << 8;
+pub(crate) const CB_TRIGGER_SCALE: u16 = 1 << 9;
 
 impl LayoutStyle {
     /// Whether CSS box sizes compute normally but do not apply to this box's

crates/obscura-render/src/paint.rs

@@ -310,6 +310,7 @@ pub struct SelectedImage {
 /// The DOM must not be mutated while this value is reused.
 pub struct PreparedRender {
     viewport: (f32, f32),
+    root_font_size: f32,
     base_url: Option<String>,
     content_size: (f32, f32),
     viewport_fixed: std::collections::HashSet<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
@@ -360,24 +361,21 @@ impl PreparedRender {
         )
     }
 
-    /// Border box in immutable document space, including authored translate
-    /// transforms but excluding root-scroll and sticky movement.
+    /// Axis-aligned bounds of the transformed border box in immutable document
+    /// space, excluding root-scroll and sticky movement.
     pub fn document_rect(
         &self,
         id: obscura_dom::tree::NodeId,
     ) -> Option<crate::Rect> {
         let rect = *self.layout.rects.get(&id)?;
-        let offset = self
-            .layout
-            .translates
+        Some(
+            self.layout
+                .transforms
                 .get(&id)
                 .copied()
-            .unwrap_or((0.0, 0.0));
-        Some(crate::Rect {
-            x: rect.x + offset.0,
-            y: rect.y + offset.1,
-            ..rect
-        })
+                .map(|transform| transform.map_rect(rect))
+                .unwrap_or(rect),
+        )
     }
 
     /// Unscaled padding-box size used by CSSOM View's `clientWidth` and
@@ -739,9 +737,33 @@ impl PreparedRender {
             .to_string(),
         );
 
-        out.insert("transform", transform_css(style));
+        out.insert(
+            "transform",
+            transform_css(style, rect, self.root_font_size, self.viewport),
+        );
         out
             .insert("transform-origin", transform_origin_css(style, rect));
+        out.insert(
+            "translate",
+            style.individual_translate.map_or_else(
+                || "none".to_string(),
+                |(x, y)| format!("{} {}", dimension_css(x, "0px"), dimension_css(y, "0px")),
+            ),
+        );
+        out.insert(
+            "rotate",
+            style.individual_rotate.map_or_else(
+                || "none".to_string(),
+                |angle| format!("{}deg", css_number(angle)),
+            ),
+        );
+        out.insert(
+            "scale",
+            style.individual_scale.map_or_else(
+                || "none".to_string(),
+                |(x, y)| format!("{} {}", css_number(x), css_number(y)),
+            ),
+        );
         Some(out)
     }
 
@@ -790,29 +812,29 @@ impl PreparedRender {
             .get(&id)
             .cloned()
             .or_else(|| self.layout.rects.get(&id).copied().map(|rect| vec![rect]))?;
-        let transform = self
-            .layout
-            .translates
-            .get(&id)
-            .copied()
-            .unwrap_or((0.0, 0.0));
         let scroll = self.clamp_scroll(requested_scroll);
         let movement = if self.viewport_fixed.contains(&id) {
-            transform
+            (0.0, 0.0)
         } else {
             let sticky = self.sticky.translation_for(id, self.viewport, scroll);
-            (
-                transform.0 + sticky.0 - scroll.0,
-                transform.1 + sticky.1 - scroll.1,
-            )
+            (sticky.0 - scroll.0, sticky.1 - scroll.1)
         };
         Some(
             source
                 .into_iter()
-                .map(|rect| crate::Rect {
+                .map(|rect| {
+                    let rect = self
+                        .layout
+                        .transforms
+                        .get(&id)
+                        .copied()
+                        .map(|transform| transform.map_rect(rect))
+                        .unwrap_or(rect);
+                    crate::Rect {
                         x: rect.x + movement.0,
                         y: rect.y + movement.1,
                         ..rect
+                    }
                 })
                 .collect(),
         )
@@ -919,39 +941,27 @@ fn align_content_css(value: taffy::AlignContent) -> String {
     }
 }
 
-fn transform_css(style: &crate::LayoutStyle) -> String {
-    let mut parts = Vec::new();
-    if let Some((x, y)) = style.transform_translate {
-        parts.push(format!(
-            "translate({}, {})",
-            dimension_css(x, "0px"),
-            dimension_css(y, "0px")
-        ));
-    }
-    if let Some((x, y)) = style.individual_translate {
-        parts.push(format!(
-            "translate({}, {})",
-            dimension_css(x, "0px"),
-            dimension_css(y, "0px")
-        ));
-    }
-    if let Some((x, y)) = style.transform_scale {
-        parts.push(format!("scale({}, {})", css_number(x), css_number(y)));
-    }
-    if let Some([a, b, c, d]) = style.transform_projection {
-        parts.push(format!(
-            "matrix({}, {}, {}, {}, 0, 0)",
-            css_number(a),
-            css_number(b),
-            css_number(c),
-            css_number(d)
-        ));
-    }
-    if parts.is_empty() {
-        "none".to_string()
-    } else {
-        parts.join(" ")
+fn transform_css(
+    style: &crate::LayoutStyle,
+    rect: Option<&crate::Rect>,
+    root_font_size: f32,
+    viewport: (f32, f32),
+) -> String {
+    if style.transform_ops.is_empty() {
+        return "none".to_string();
     }
+    let fallback = crate::Rect { x: 0.0, y: 0.0, width: 0.0, height: 0.0 };
+    let matrix = crate::dom::resolved_transform_property_matrix(
+        style,
+        rect.unwrap_or(&fallback),
+        root_font_size,
+        viewport,
+    );
+    format!(
+        "matrix({}, {}, {}, {}, {}, {})",
+        css_number(matrix.a), css_number(matrix.b), css_number(matrix.c),
+        css_number(matrix.d), css_number(matrix.e), css_number(matrix.f),
+    )
 }
 
 fn transform_origin_css(style: &crate::LayoutStyle, rect: Option<&crate::Rect>) -> String {
@@ -1051,8 +1061,16 @@ pub fn prepare_dom_with_dynamic_fonts(
     let content_size = laid.scrolling_content_size(tree, viewport);
     let viewport_fixed = laid.viewport_fixed_nodes(tree);
     let sticky = laid.root_sticky_layout(tree, viewport);
+    let root_font_size = tree
+        .query_selector("html")
+        .ok()
+        .flatten()
+        .and_then(|root| laid.styles.get(&root))
+        .and_then(|style| style.font_size)
+        .unwrap_or(16.0);
     Some(PreparedRender {
         viewport,
+        root_font_size,
         base_url: base_url.map(str::to_string),
         content_size,
         viewport_fixed,
@@ -1090,6 +1108,9 @@ pub fn paint_prepared(
         None,
         None,
         None,
+        None,
+        None,
+        (0.0, 0.0),
     )
 }
 
@@ -1131,6 +1152,63 @@ fn stacking_z_index(
     None
 }
 
+fn has_authored_transform(style: &crate::LayoutStyle) -> bool {
+    !style.transform_ops.is_empty()
+        || style.individual_translate.is_some()
+        || style.individual_rotate.is_some()
+        || style.individual_scale.is_some()
+}
+
+/// Untransformed source bounds for one atomic transform layer, expressed in
+/// the parent surface's coordinates. Keeping this tight both preserves source
+/// pixels that begin outside the viewport and avoids a viewport-sized surface
+/// for every transformed icon or badge.
+fn transform_subtree_source_bounds(
+    tree: &DomTree,
+    laid: &crate::DomLayout,
+    scroll_state: &ScrollPaintState<'_>,
+    root: obscura_dom::tree::NodeId,
+) -> Option<crate::Rect> {
+    let mut bounds: Option<crate::Rect> = None;
+    for id in std::iter::once(root).chain(tree.descendants(root)) {
+        let Some(rect) = laid.rects.get(&id) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let (x, y) = scroll_state.translation_for(laid, id);
+        let mut visual = crate::Rect {
+            x: rect.x + x,
+            y: rect.y + y,
+            width: rect.width,
+            height: rect.height,
+        };
+        if let Some(shadow) = laid
+            .styles
+            .get(&id)
+            .and_then(|style| style.box_shadow)
+            .filter(|shadow| !shadow.inset && shadow.color[3] != 0)
+        {
+            let expansion = shadow.spread + shadow.blur.max(0.0);
+            let shadow_rect = crate::Rect {
+                x: visual.x + shadow.offset_x - expansion,
+                y: visual.y + shadow.offset_y - expansion,
+                width: (visual.width + 2.0 * expansion).max(0.0),
+                height: (visual.height + 2.0 * expansion).max(0.0),
+            };
+            visual = visual.union(&shadow_rect);
+        }
+        bounds = Some(match bounds {
+            Some(current) => current.union(&visual),
+            None => visual,
+        });
+    }
+    bounds.map(|bounds| crate::Rect {
+        x: bounds.x - 2.0,
+        y: bounds.y - 2.0,
+        width: bounds.width + 4.0,
+        height: bounds.height + 4.0,
+    })
+}
+
 /// Paint an already prepared layout without changing its document-space
 /// geometry. Root scrolling and sticky positioning are per-shot visual state,
 /// so alternating captures can safely reuse the same layout.
@@ -1150,13 +1228,20 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
     paint_root: Option<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
     suppress_opacity_for: Option<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
     suppress_stacking_for: Option<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
+    suppress_transform_for: Option<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
+    clip_scope_root: Option<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
+    surface_offset: (f32, f32),
 ) -> Option<Pixmap> {
-    let scroll_state =
-        ScrollPaintState::new(viewport, scroll, content_size, viewport_fixed, sticky);
-    // Only raster images inside an actually rotated/scaled subtree receive an
-    // affine entry. Ordinary pages pay one fast style scan and allocate no
-    // matrix map; transformed pages do matrix work only along those subtrees.
-    let projected_images = collect_projected_image_transforms(tree, laid, &scroll_state);
+    let scroll_state = ScrollPaintState::new(
+        tree,
+        viewport,
+        scroll,
+        content_size,
+        viewport_fixed,
+        sticky,
+        clip_scope_root,
+        surface_offset,
+    );
     let root_font_size = tree
         .query_selector("html")
         .ok()
@@ -1209,10 +1294,12 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
                 .get(&nid)
                 .and_then(|style| style.opacity)
                 .is_some_and(|opacity| opacity.clamp(0.0, 1.0) < 1.0);
+        let is_transform_root = suppress_transform_for != Some(nid)
+            && laid.styles.get(&nid).is_some_and(has_authored_transform);
         let z = (suppress_stacking_for != Some(nid))
             .then(|| stacking_z_index(tree, laid, nid))
             .flatten();
-        if is_opacity_root {
+        if is_opacity_root || is_transform_root {
             let mut sub = vec![nid];
             sub.extend(tree.descendants(nid));
             for &member in &sub {
@@ -1334,6 +1421,9 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
                 Some(nid),
                 suppress_opacity_for,
                 Some(nid),
+                suppress_transform_for,
+                clip_scope_root,
+                surface_offset,
             )?;
             continue;
         }
@@ -1377,6 +1467,141 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
             None => continue,
         };
 
+        let style = match laid.styles.get(&nid) {
+            Some(s) => s,
+            None => continue,
+        };
+
+        if suppress_transform_for != Some(nid) && has_authored_transform(style) {
+            opacity_subtree_skip.insert(nid);
+            opacity_subtree_skip.extend(tree.descendants(nid));
+            let transform = crate::dom::resolved_transform_matrix(
+                style,
+                &rect,
+                root_font_size,
+                viewport,
+            );
+            if transform.is_translation() {
+                // Translation-only transforms retain the direct offset path:
+                // no surface allocation and no resampling for carousels and
+                // centering utilities.
+                pixmap = paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
+                    tree,
+                    viewport,
+                    base_url,
+                    scroll,
+                    pixmap,
+                    image_cache,
+                    selected_images,
+                    svg_fonts,
+                    content_size,
+                    viewport_fixed,
+                    sticky,
+                    laid,
+                    Some(nid),
+                    suppress_opacity_for,
+                    suppress_stacking_for,
+                    Some(nid),
+                    clip_scope_root,
+                    surface_offset,
+                )?;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // A transform wraps the complete atomic child display list. Paint
+            // that list in its untransformed coordinate space, with clips
+            // established inside this subtree, then map the finished surface.
+            // This makes text, borders, shadows, SVG, images, and pseudos share
+            // one transform exactly like Gecko's nsDisplayTransform wrapper.
+            let outside_clip = scroll_state.clip_for(laid, nid);
+            let movement = scroll_state.translation_for(laid, nid);
+            let display_transform = crate::Affine2::translate(movement.0, movement.1)
+                .then(transform)
+                .then(crate::Affine2::translate(-movement.0, -movement.1));
+            let target = crate::Rect {
+                x: 0.0,
+                y: 0.0,
+                width: pixmap.width() as f32,
+                height: pixmap.height() as f32,
+            };
+            let target = match outside_clip {
+                Some(clip) => match target.intersect(&clip) {
+                    Some(target) => target,
+                    None => continue,
+                },
+                None => target,
+            };
+            let Some(inverse) = display_transform.inverse() else {
+                // A singular transform has no two-dimensional painted area.
+                continue;
+            };
+            let needed_source = inverse.map_rect(target);
+            let Some(source_bounds) = transform_subtree_source_bounds(
+                tree,
+                laid,
+                &scroll_state,
+                nid,
+            )
+            .and_then(|bounds| bounds.intersect(&needed_source)) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let left = source_bounds.x.floor();
+            let top = source_bounds.y.floor();
+            let right = (source_bounds.x + source_bounds.width).ceil();
+            let bottom = (source_bounds.y + source_bounds.height).ceil();
+            let layer_width = (right - left).max(1.0) as u32;
+            let layer_height = (bottom - top).max(1.0) as u32;
+            let layer_delta = (-left, -top);
+            let layer = Pixmap::new(layer_width, layer_height)?;
+            let layer = paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
+                tree,
+                viewport,
+                base_url,
+                scroll,
+                layer,
+                image_cache,
+                selected_images,
+                svg_fonts,
+                content_size,
+                viewport_fixed,
+                sticky,
+                laid,
+                Some(nid),
+                suppress_opacity_for,
+                suppress_stacking_for,
+                Some(nid),
+                Some(nid),
+                (
+                    surface_offset.0 + layer_delta.0,
+                    surface_offset.1 + layer_delta.1,
+                ),
+            )?;
+            let transform = display_transform.then(crate::Affine2::translate(
+                -layer_delta.0,
+                -layer_delta.1,
+            ));
+            let transform = Transform::from_row(
+                transform.a,
+                transform.b,
+                transform.c,
+                transform.d,
+                transform.e,
+                transform.f,
+            );
+            let clip_mask = outside_clip
+                .as_ref()
+                .and_then(|clip| box_clip_mask(pixmap.width(), pixmap.height(), clip));
+            pixmap.draw_pixmap(
+                0,
+                0,
+                layer.as_ref(),
+                &tiny_skia::PixmapPaint::default(),
+                transform,
+                clip_mask.as_ref(),
+            );
+            continue;
+        }
+
         let own_opacity = laid
             .styles
             .get(&nid)
@@ -1409,6 +1634,9 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
                 Some(nid),
                 Some(nid),
                 suppress_stacking_for,
+                suppress_transform_for,
+                clip_scope_root,
+                surface_offset,
             )?;
             let group_paint = tiny_skia::PixmapPaint {
                 opacity: own_opacity,
@@ -1425,11 +1653,6 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
             continue;
         }
 
-        let style = match laid.styles.get(&nid) {
-            Some(s) => s,
-            None => continue,
-        };
-
         if style.effectively_invisible {
             continue;
         }
@@ -1448,10 +1671,7 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
         // ubiquitous 1x1 clipped "visually hidden" accessibility pattern
         // actually invisible instead of painting text wherever it lands).
         let clip = scroll_state.clip_for(laid, nid);
-        let projected_image = projected_images.get(&nid).copied();
-        let cull_rect = projected_image
-            .map(|transform| transform.map_rect(rect))
-            .unwrap_or(rect);
+        let cull_rect = rect;
         let visible_rect = match clip {
             Some(c) => match cull_rect.intersect(&c) {
                 Some(r) => r,
@@ -1710,7 +1930,7 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
                         style.object_fit,
                         &mut pixmap,
                         image_cache,
-                        projected_image,
+                        None,
                         radius,
                         clip_path_mask.as_ref(),
                     );
@@ -2008,23 +2228,28 @@ fn paint_laid_dom_scrolled(
 /// document-space [`DomLayout`]. Keeping these deltas out of the layout avoids
 /// accumulating movement when the same prepared document paints more than one
 /// frame.
-#[derive(Debug)]
 struct ScrollPaintState<'a> {
+    tree: &'a DomTree,
     viewport: (f32, f32),
     scroll: (f32, f32),
     viewport_fixed: &'a std::collections::HashSet<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
     sticky: std::collections::HashMap<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId, (f32, f32)>,
     sticky_clips: std::collections::HashMap<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId, (f32, f32)>,
+    clip_scope_root: Option<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
+    surface_offset: (f32, f32),
     active: bool,
 }
 
 impl<'a> ScrollPaintState<'a> {
     fn new(
+        tree: &'a DomTree,
         viewport: (f32, f32),
         requested: (f32, f32),
         content: (f32, f32),
         viewport_fixed: &'a std::collections::HashSet<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
         sticky_layout: &crate::StickyLayout,
+        clip_scope_root: Option<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId>,
+        surface_offset: (f32, f32),
     ) -> Self {
         let scroll_x = if requested.0.is_finite() {
             requested
@@ -2044,11 +2269,14 @@ impl<'a> ScrollPaintState<'a> {
         let active = scroll != (0.0, 0.0) || !sticky_layout.is_empty();
         if !active {
             return Self {
+                tree,
                 viewport,
                 scroll,
                 viewport_fixed,
                 sticky: std::collections::HashMap::new(),
                 sticky_clips: std::collections::HashMap::new(),
+                clip_scope_root,
+                surface_offset,
                 active,
             };
         }
@@ -2056,11 +2284,14 @@ impl<'a> ScrollPaintState<'a> {
         let sticky = sticky_layout.translations(viewport, scroll);
         let sticky_clips = sticky_layout.clip_translations_from(&sticky);
         Self {
+            tree,
             viewport,
             scroll,
             viewport_fixed,
             sticky,
             sticky_clips,
+            clip_scope_root,
+            surface_offset,
             active,
         }
     }
@@ -2072,12 +2303,12 @@ impl<'a> ScrollPaintState<'a> {
     ) -> (f32, f32) {
         let base = laid.translates.get(&id).copied().unwrap_or((0.0, 0.0));
         if !self.active || self.viewport_fixed.contains(&id) {
-            return base;
+            return (base.0 + self.surface_offset.0, base.1 + self.surface_offset.1);
         }
         let sticky = self.sticky.get(&id).copied().unwrap_or((0.0, 0.0));
         (
-            base.0 + sticky.0 - self.scroll.0,
-            base.1 + sticky.1 - self.scroll.1,
+            base.0 + sticky.0 - self.scroll.0 + self.surface_offset.0,
+            base.1 + sticky.1 - self.scroll.1 + self.surface_offset.1,
         )
     }
 
@@ -2095,10 +2326,44 @@ impl<'a> ScrollPaintState<'a> {
         laid: &crate::DomLayout,
         id: obscura_dom::tree::NodeId,
     ) -> Option<crate::dom::OverflowClip> {
-        let mut clip = laid.clip_rects.get(&id).copied().flatten()?;
-        if !self.active || self.viewport_fixed.contains(&id) {
-            return Some(clip);
+        if let Some(root) = self.clip_scope_root {
+            if id == root {
+                return None;
             }
+            let mut owners = Vec::new();
+            let mut current = self.tree.get_node(id).and_then(|node| node.parent);
+            let mut found = false;
+            while let Some(owner) = current {
+                owners.push(owner);
+                if owner == root {
+                    found = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+                current = self.tree.get_node(owner).and_then(|node| node.parent);
+            }
+            if found {
+                let mut clip: Option<crate::dom::OverflowClip> = None;
+                for owner in owners.into_iter().rev() {
+                    let (Some(style), Some(rect)) =
+                        (laid.styles.get(&owner), laid.rects.get(&owner))
+                    else {
+                        continue;
+                    };
+                    if !style.overflow_hidden || style.overflow_propagated_to_viewport {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    let (x, y) = self.translation_for(laid, owner);
+                    let own = crate::dom::OverflowClip::for_box(rect, style, x, y);
+                    clip = Some(match clip {
+                        Some(current) => current.intersect(own),
+                        None => own,
+                    });
+                }
+                return clip;
+            }
+        }
+        let mut clip = laid.clip_rects.get(&id).copied().flatten()?;
+        if self.active && !self.viewport_fixed.contains(&id) {
             let sticky = self
                 .sticky_clips
                 .get(&id)
@@ -2108,6 +2373,8 @@ impl<'a> ScrollPaintState<'a> {
                 sticky.0 - self.scroll.0,
                 sticky.1 - self.scroll.1,
             );
+        }
+        clip.translate(self.surface_offset.0, self.surface_offset.1);
         Some(clip)
     }
 
@@ -2146,186 +2413,6 @@ impl<'a> ScrollPaintState<'a> {
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
-struct ImageAffine {
-    a: f32,
-    b: f32,
-    c: f32,
-    d: f32,
-    e: f32,
-    f: f32,
-}
-
-impl ImageAffine {
-    const IDENTITY: Self = Self {
-        a: 1.0,
-        b: 0.0,
-        c: 0.0,
-        d: 1.0,
-        e: 0.0,
-        f: 0.0,
-    };
-
-    /// Compose `self(other(point))`.
-    fn then(self, other: Self) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            a: self.a * other.a + self.c * other.b,
-            b: self.b * other.a + self.d * other.b,
-            c: self.a * other.c + self.c * other.d,
-            d: self.b * other.c + self.d * other.d,
-            e: self.a * other.e + self.c * other.f + self.e,
-            f: self.b * other.e + self.d * other.f + self.f,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn around(origin: (f32, f32), linear: [f32; 4]) -> Self {
-        let [a, b, c, d] = linear;
-        Self {
-            a,
-            b,
-            c,
-            d,
-            e: origin.0 - a * origin.0 - c * origin.1,
-            f: origin.1 - b * origin.0 - d * origin.1,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn map(self, x: f32, y: f32) -> (f32, f32) {
-        (
-            self.a * x + self.c * y + self.e,
-            self.b * x + self.d * y + self.f,
-        )
-    }
-
-    fn map_rect(self, rect: crate::Rect) -> crate::Rect {
-        let points = [
-            self.map(rect.x, rect.y),
-            self.map(rect.x + rect.width, rect.y),
-            self.map(rect.x, rect.y + rect.height),
-            self.map(rect.x + rect.width, rect.y + rect.height),
-        ];
-        let left = points.iter().map(|point| point.0).fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min);
-        let top = points.iter().map(|point| point.1).fold(f32::INFINITY, f32::min);
-        let right = points
-            .iter()
-            .map(|point| point.0)
-            .fold(f32::NEG_INFINITY, f32::max);
-        let bottom = points
-            .iter()
-            .map(|point| point.1)
-            .fold(f32::NEG_INFINITY, f32::max);
-        crate::Rect {
-            x: left,
-            y: top,
-            width: (right - left).max(0.0),
-            height: (bottom - top).max(0.0),
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn tiny_skia(self) -> Transform {
-        Transform::from_row(self.a, self.b, self.c, self.d, self.e, self.f)
-    }
-
-    fn is_identity(self) -> bool {
-        (self.a - 1.0).abs() < f32::EPSILON
-            && self.b.abs() < f32::EPSILON
-            && self.c.abs() < f32::EPSILON
-            && (self.d - 1.0).abs() < f32::EPSILON
-            && self.e.abs() < f32::EPSILON
-            && self.f.abs() < f32::EPSILON
-    }
-}
-
-/// Accumulate rotation/scale matrices through transformed subtrees, storing
-/// entries only for raster `<img>` descendants. Translation comes from the
-/// per-shot visual state so the document-space layout remains reusable.
-fn collect_projected_image_transforms(
-    tree: &DomTree,
-    layout: &crate::DomLayout,
-    scroll_state: &ScrollPaintState,
-) -> std::collections::HashMap<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId, ImageAffine> {
-    if !layout.styles.values().any(|style| {
-        style.transform_projection.is_some() || style.transform_scale.is_some()
-    }) {
-        return std::collections::HashMap::new();
-    }
-
-    fn walk(
-        tree: &DomTree,
-        layout: &crate::DomLayout,
-        scroll_state: &ScrollPaintState,
-        id: obscura_dom::tree::NodeId,
-        parent: ImageAffine,
-        active: bool,
-        out: &mut std::collections::HashMap<obscura_dom::tree::NodeId, ImageAffine>,
-    ) {
-        let style = layout.styles.get(&id);
-        let own_active = style.is_some_and(|style| {
-            style.transform_projection.is_some() || style.transform_scale.is_some()
-        });
-        let mut combined = parent;
-        if own_active {
-            let style = style.unwrap();
-            let projection = style
-                .transform_projection
-                .unwrap_or([1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]);
-            let (scale_x, scale_y) = style.transform_scale.unwrap_or((1.0, 1.0));
-            let linear = [
-                scale_x * projection[0],
-                scale_y * projection[1],
-                scale_x * projection[2],
-                scale_y * projection[3],
-            ];
-            if let Some(rect) = layout.rects.get(&id) {
-                let offset = scroll_state.translation_for(layout, id);
-                let (origin_x, origin_y) = style.transform_origin.unwrap_or((
-                    crate::Dimension::Percent(0.5),
-                    crate::Dimension::Percent(0.5),
-                ));
-                let origin = (
-                    rect.x + offset.0 + crate::dom::resolve_translate(origin_x, rect.width),
-                    rect.y + offset.1 + crate::dom::resolve_translate(origin_y, rect.height),
-                );
-                combined = parent.then(ImageAffine::around(origin, linear));
-            }
-        }
-
-        let transformed = active || own_active;
-        if transformed
-            && !combined.is_identity()
-            && tree.get_node(id).is_some_and(|node| {
-                node.as_element()
-                    .is_some_and(|element| element.local.as_ref() == "img")
-            })
-        {
-            out.insert(id, combined);
-        }
-        for child in tree.children(id) {
-            walk(
-                tree,
-                layout,
-                scroll_state,
-                child,
-                combined,
-                transformed,
-                out,
-            );
-        }
-    }
-
-    let mut out = std::collections::HashMap::new();
-    walk(
-        tree,
-        layout,
-        scroll_state,
-        tree.document(),
-        ImageAffine::IDENTITY,
-        false,
-        &mut out,
-    );
-    out
-}
-
 /// A closed rounded-rectangle path, corners approximated by quadratic curves
 /// (visually indistinguishable from true arcs at typical UI radii). The
 /// horizontal and vertical radii are scaled together when necessary, matching
@@ -5320,7 +5407,7 @@ fn paint_image(
     object_fit: crate::ObjectFit,
     pixmap: &mut Pixmap,
     cache: &mut RenderResourceCache,
-    transform: Option<ImageAffine>,
+    transform: Option<crate::Affine2>,
     clip_radius: crate::ResolvedBorderRadii,
     extra_clip: Option<&tiny_skia::Mask>,
 ) -> bool {
@@ -5413,7 +5500,14 @@ fn paint_image(
         content.as_ref(),
         &tiny_skia::PixmapPaint::default(),
         transform
-            .map(ImageAffine::tiny_skia)
+            .map(|transform| Transform::from_row(
+                transform.a,
+                transform.b,
+                transform.c,
+                transform.d,
+                transform.e,
+                transform.f,
+            ))
             .unwrap_or_else(Transform::identity),
         clip.as_ref(),
     );
@@ -8219,6 +8313,152 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!((origin.red(), origin.green(), origin.blue()), (255, 255, 255));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn rotate_and_scale_paint_complete_mixed_subtrees() {
+        let tree = parse_html(
+            r#"<html><body style="margin:0">
+              <div style="position:absolute;left:20px;top:20px;width:60px;height:40px;
+                          background:#ff0000;transform-origin:0 0;transform:scale(2)">
+                <span style="color:#0000ff;font:12px sans-serif">MMMM</span>
+                <img alt="" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20width='10'%20height='10'%3E%3Crect%20width='10'%20height='10'%20fill='%2300ff00'/%3E%3C/svg%3E"
+                     style="position:absolute;left:40px;top:20px;width:10px;height:10px">
+              </div>
+              <div style="position:absolute;left:180px;top:20px;width:30px;height:20px;
+                          background:#ff00ff;transform-origin:0 0;transform:rotate(90deg)">
+                <span style="color:#0000ff;font:10px sans-serif">M</span>
+                <img alt="" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20width='10'%20height='10'%3E%3Crect%20width='10'%20height='10'%20fill='%2300ffff'/%3E%3C/svg%3E"
+                     style="position:absolute;left:20px;top:0;width:10px;height:10px">
+              </div>
+            </body></html>"#,
+        );
+        let pixmap = paint_dom(&tree, (240.0, 120.0), None).expect("pixmap");
+
+        let scaled_box = pixmap.pixel(30, 70).expect("scaled box");
+        assert!(scaled_box.red() > 220 && scaled_box.green() < 40);
+        let scaled_image = pixmap.pixel(110, 70).expect("scaled image");
+        assert!(scaled_image.green() > 220 && scaled_image.red() < 40);
+        assert!(
+            (20..100).any(|x| (20..60).any(|y| {
+                let pixel = pixmap.pixel(x, y).expect("scaled text region");
+                pixel.red() < 80 && pixel.green() < 80 && pixel.blue() < 80
+            })),
+            "text must be rasterized inside the scaled atomic subtree"
+        );
+
+        let rotated_box = pixmap.pixel(165, 25).expect("rotated box");
+        assert!(rotated_box.red() > 220 && rotated_box.blue() > 220);
+        let rotated_image = pixmap.pixel(175, 45).expect("rotated image");
+        assert!(rotated_image.green() > 220 && rotated_image.blue() > 220);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn transform_function_order_nested_world_matrices_and_cssom_aabbs() {
+        let tree = parse_html(
+            r#"<html><body style="margin:0">
+              <div id="translate-rotate" style="position:absolute;left:50px;top:50px;
+                   width:20px;height:10px;transform-origin:0 0;
+                   transform:translateX(100px) rotate(90deg)"></div>
+              <div id="rotate-translate" style="position:absolute;left:50px;top:50px;
+                   width:20px;height:10px;transform-origin:0 0;
+                   transform:rotate(90deg) translateX(100px)"></div>
+              <div id="parent" style="position:absolute;left:50px;top:200px;width:100px;
+                   height:100px;transform-origin:0 0;transform:scale(2)">
+                <div id="child" style="position:absolute;left:10px;top:20px;width:10px;
+                     height:20px;transform-origin:0 0;transform:rotate(90deg)"></div>
+                <div id="captured-fixed" style="position:fixed;left:0;top:0;width:10px;
+                     height:10px"></div>
+              </div>
+              <div id="center-origin" style="position:absolute;left:100px;top:400px;
+                   width:20px;height:10px;transform:rotate(90deg)"></div>
+              <div id="cssom-transform" style="position:absolute;left:200px;top:400px;
+                   width:20px;height:10px;transform:translateX(50%);translate:7px;
+                   rotate:30deg;scale:2"></div>
+            </body></html>"#,
+        );
+        let mut resources = RenderResourceCache::default();
+        let prepared = prepare_dom(&tree, (500.0, 600.0), None, &mut resources)
+            .expect("prepared transform geometry");
+        let assert_rect = |actual: crate::Rect, expected: crate::Rect| {
+            assert!((actual.x - expected.x).abs() < 0.02, "x: {actual:?}");
+            assert!((actual.y - expected.y).abs() < 0.02, "y: {actual:?}");
+            assert!((actual.width - expected.width).abs() < 0.02, "width: {actual:?}");
+            assert!((actual.height - expected.height).abs() < 0.02, "height: {actual:?}");
+        };
+        let first = tree.get_element_by_id("translate-rotate").unwrap();
+        let second = tree.get_element_by_id("rotate-translate").unwrap();
+        assert_rect(
+            prepared.document_rect(first).unwrap(),
+            crate::Rect { x: 140.0, y: 50.0, width: 10.0, height: 20.0 },
+        );
+        assert_rect(
+            prepared.document_rect(second).unwrap(),
+            crate::Rect { x: 40.0, y: 150.0, width: 10.0, height: 20.0 },
+        );
+        let child = tree.get_element_by_id("child").unwrap();
+        let child_rect = crate::Rect { x: 30.0, y: 240.0, width: 40.0, height: 20.0 };
+        assert_rect(prepared.document_rect(child).unwrap(), child_rect);
+        assert_rect(
+            prepared.viewport_client_rects(child, (0.0, 0.0)).unwrap()[0],
+            child_rect,
+        );
+        let fixed = tree.get_element_by_id("captured-fixed").unwrap();
+        assert_rect(
+            prepared.document_rect(fixed).unwrap(),
+            crate::Rect { x: 50.0, y: 200.0, width: 20.0, height: 20.0 },
+        );
+        let centered = tree.get_element_by_id("center-origin").unwrap();
+        assert_rect(
+            prepared.document_rect(centered).unwrap(),
+            crate::Rect { x: 105.0, y: 395.0, width: 10.0, height: 20.0 },
+        );
+        let cssom = tree.get_element_by_id("cssom-transform").unwrap();
+        let computed = prepared.computed_style(cssom).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(computed["transform"], "matrix(1, 0, 0, 1, 10, 0)");
+        assert_eq!(computed["translate"], "7px 0px");
+        assert_eq!(computed["rotate"], "30deg");
+        assert_eq!(computed["scale"], "2 2");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn transformed_subtree_is_clipped_by_outside_ancestor() {
+        let tree = parse_html(
+            r#"<html><body style="margin:0">
+              <div style="position:absolute;left:20px;top:20px;width:40px;height:40px;
+                          overflow:hidden">
+                <div style="position:absolute;left:30px;top:10px;width:20px;height:20px;
+                            background:#00aa00;transform-origin:0 0;transform:scale(2)"></div>
+              </div>
+            </body></html>"#,
+        );
+        let pixmap = paint_dom(&tree, (100.0, 80.0), None).expect("pixmap");
+        let inside = pixmap.pixel(55, 40).expect("inside ancestor clip");
+        assert!(inside.green() > 120 && inside.red() < 40);
+        let outside = pixmap.pixel(65, 40).expect("outside ancestor clip");
+        assert_eq!((outside.red(), outside.green(), outside.blue()), (255, 255, 255));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_transform_keeps_identity_geometry_and_baseline_paint() {
+        let tree = parse_html(
+            r#"<html><body style="margin:0"><div id="plain" style="position:absolute;
+               left:10px;top:12px;width:20px;height:15px;background:#ff0000"></div>
+               </body></html>"#,
+        );
+        let mut resources = RenderResourceCache::default();
+        let prepared = prepare_dom(&tree, (80.0, 60.0), None, &mut resources).unwrap();
+        let plain = tree.get_element_by_id("plain").unwrap();
+        assert!(prepared.layout().transforms.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(
+            prepared.document_rect(plain),
+            Some(crate::Rect { x: 10.0, y: 12.0, width: 20.0, height: 15.0 })
+        );
+        let pixmap = paint_dom(&tree, (80.0, 60.0), None).unwrap();
+        let painted = pixmap.pixel(15, 15).unwrap();
+        assert!(painted.red() > 220 && painted.green() < 40);
+        let empty = pixmap.pixel(5, 5).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!((empty.red(), empty.green(), empty.blue()), (255, 255, 255));
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn transformed_image_is_clipped_inside_overflow_border() {
         // CSS overflow clipping belongs to the owner's padding box. The

crates/obscura-render/src/style.rs

@@ -1611,6 +1611,7 @@ fn apply_value(style: &mut LayoutStyle, name: &str, value: &str) {
         "transform" => parse_transform(style, value),
         "transform-origin" => style.transform_origin = parse_transform_origin(value),
         "translate" => parse_individual_translate(style, value),
+        "rotate" => parse_individual_rotate(style, value),
         "scale" => parse_individual_scale(style, value),
         "filter" => set_containing_block_trigger(
             style,
@@ -1918,6 +1919,7 @@ pub fn supports_declaration(name: &str, value: &str) -> bool {
             | "transform"
             | "transform-origin"
             | "translate"
+            | "rotate"
             | "scale"
             | "filter"
             | "backdrop-filter"
@@ -2409,6 +2411,7 @@ fn supports_conservative_known_value(name: &str, value: &str) -> bool {
         "grid-column-start" | "grid-column-end" | "grid-row-start" | "grid-row-end" => parse_grid_line_kind(value).is_some(),
         "transform-origin" => parse_transform_origin(value).is_some(),
         "translate" => lower == "none" || dimensions(value, false, 3),
+        "rotate" => lower == "none" || angle_degrees(value).is_some(),
         "scale" => lower == "none" || {
             let values = value.split_whitespace().collect::<Vec<_>>();
             !values.is_empty() && values.len() <= 2 && values.iter().all(|value| scale_number(value).is_some())
@@ -2466,19 +2469,7 @@ fn supports_transform_value(value: &str) -> bool {
     if value.trim().eq_ignore_ascii_case("none") {
         return true;
     }
-    let functions = transform_functions(value);
-    !functions.is_empty() && functions.into_iter().all(|(name, arguments)| {
-        let values = arguments.split(',').map(str::trim).filter(|value| !value.is_empty()).collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        match name.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
-            "translate" => (1..=2).contains(&values.len()) && values.iter().all(|value| !matches!(dimension_value(value), crate::Dimension::Auto)),
-            "translate3d" => values.len() == 3 && values.iter().all(|value| !matches!(dimension_value(value), crate::Dimension::Auto)),
-            "translatex" | "translatey" => values.len() == 1 && !matches!(dimension_value(values[0]), crate::Dimension::Auto),
-            "scale" => (1..=2).contains(&values.len()) && values.iter().all(|value| scale_number(value).is_some()),
-            "scalex" | "scaley" => values.len() == 1 && scale_number(values[0]).is_some(),
-            "rotate" | "rotatex" | "rotatey" | "rotatez" => values.len() == 1 && angle_degrees(values[0]).is_some(),
-            _ => false,
-        }
-    })
+    parse_transform_ops(value).is_some()
 }
 
 fn apply_animation_shorthand(style: &mut LayoutStyle, value: &str) {
@@ -2858,143 +2849,203 @@ fn content_alignment_pair(
     None
 }
 
-/// Parse the transform functions used by the scoped paint model. Translation
-/// stays unresolved until the final border box is known. Scale is captured
-/// separately, while rotations are multiplied as 3×3 matrices and projected
-/// onto the input z=0 plane; this exactly represents rotateX/Y/Z chains that
-/// do not introduce perspective.
 fn parse_transform(style: &mut LayoutStyle, value: &str) {
     let v = value.trim();
     if v.is_empty() {
         return;
     }
-    // `transform: none` resets any transform from a lower-priority rule (the
-    // carousel idiom: a class translates the track, an inline style clears it
-    // for the untransformed state).
-    if v.eq_ignore_ascii_case("none") {
-        style.transform_translate = None;
-        style.transform_scale = None;
-        style.transform_projection = None;
+    if matches!(
+        v.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str(),
+        "none" | "initial" | "unset" | "revert" | "revert-layer"
+    ) {
+        style.transform_ops.clear();
         set_containing_block_trigger(style, crate::CB_TRIGGER_TRANSFORM, false);
         return;
     }
-    let functions = transform_functions(v);
-    if functions.is_empty() {
+    let Some(operations) = parse_transform_ops(v) else {
         return;
-    }
+    };
+    style.transform_ops = operations;
     set_containing_block_trigger(style, crate::CB_TRIGGER_TRANSFORM, true);
-    let zero = crate::Dimension::Px(0.0);
-    let (mut tx, mut ty): (Option<crate::Dimension>, Option<crate::Dimension>) = (None, None);
-    let (mut sx, mut sy): (Option<f32>, Option<f32>) = (None, None);
-    let mut rotation = [
-        1.0f32, 0.0, 0.0,
-        0.0, 1.0, 0.0,
-        0.0, 0.0, 1.0,
-    ];
-    let mut has_rotation = false;
-    for (func, args) in functions {
-        let parts: Vec<&str> = args.split(',').map(|s| s.trim()).filter(|s| !s.is_empty()).collect();
-        match func.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
-            // translate3d's z component is ignored (no perspective model);
-            // Swiper and similar carousels position their track exclusively
-            // through translate3d, so dropping it left every slide stacked.
-            "translate" | "translate3d" => {
-                if let Some(a) = parts.first() {
-                    tx = Some(dimension_value(a));
-                }
-                // A missing second component is 0 (translateY), not inherited.
-                ty = Some(parts.get(1).map(|a| dimension_value(a)).unwrap_or(zero));
-            }
-            "translatex" => {
-                if let Some(a) = parts.first() {
-                    tx = Some(dimension_value(a));
-                }
-            }
-            "translatey" => {
-                if let Some(a) = parts.first() {
-                    ty = Some(dimension_value(a));
-                }
-            }
-            "scale" => {
-                if let Some(a) = parts.first().and_then(|s| scale_number(s)) {
-                    // scale(s) is uniform; scale(sx, sy) sets each axis.
-                    sy = Some(parts.get(1).and_then(|s| scale_number(s)).unwrap_or(a));
-                    sx = Some(a);
-                }
-            }
-            "scalex" => {
-                if let Some(a) = parts.first().and_then(|s| scale_number(s)) {
-                    sx = Some(a);
-                }
-            }
-            "scaley" => {
-                if let Some(a) = parts.first().and_then(|s| scale_number(s)) {
-                    sy = Some(a);
-                }
-            }
-            "rotate" | "rotatez" => {
-                if let Some(angle) = parts.first().and_then(|value| angle_degrees(value)) {
-                    rotation = matrix3_mul(rotation, rotate_z_matrix(angle));
-                    has_rotation = true;
-                }
-            }
-            "rotatex" => {
-                if let Some(angle) = parts.first().and_then(|value| angle_degrees(value)) {
-                    rotation = matrix3_mul(rotation, rotate_x_matrix(angle));
-                    has_rotation = true;
-                }
-            }
-            "rotatey" => {
-                if let Some(angle) = parts.first().and_then(|value| angle_degrees(value)) {
-                    rotation = matrix3_mul(rotation, rotate_y_matrix(angle));
-                    has_rotation = true;
-                }
-            }
-            // Skew, matrix, and perspective remain outside the scoped affine
-            // image projection. Other supported functions in the same value
-            // still take effect.
-            _ => {}
-        }
-    }
-    if tx.is_some() || ty.is_some() {
-        style.transform_translate = Some((tx.unwrap_or(zero), ty.unwrap_or(zero)));
-    }
-    if sx.is_some() || sy.is_some() {
-        style.transform_scale = Some((sx.unwrap_or(1.0), sy.unwrap_or(1.0)));
-    }
-    style.transform_projection = has_rotation.then_some([
-        rotation[0],
-        rotation[3],
-        rotation[1],
-        rotation[4],
-    ]);
 }
 
-fn matrix3_mul(left: [f32; 9], right: [f32; 9]) -> [f32; 9] {
-    let mut out = [0.0; 9];
-    for row in 0..3 {
-        for column in 0..3 {
-            out[row * 3 + column] = (0..3)
-                .map(|inner| left[row * 3 + inner] * right[inner * 3 + column])
-                .sum();
+fn parse_transform_length(value: &str) -> Option<crate::TransformLength> {
+    let value = value.trim();
+    if value.contains('(') {
+        let functions = transform_functions(value);
+        if functions.len() != 1 {
+            return None;
         }
+        let (name, arguments) = &functions[0];
+        let valid = match name.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "calc" | "min" | "max" | "clamp" => resolve_contextual_length(
+                value, 16.0, 16.0, 10.0, 10.0, 100.0,
+            )
+            .is_some_and(f32::is_finite),
+            "var" => {
+                let parts = split_top_level(arguments, ',');
+                (1..=2).contains(&parts.len())
+                    && parts[0].trim().starts_with("--")
+                    && parts[0].trim().len() > 2
+                    && parts.get(1).is_none_or(|fallback| {
+                        !fallback.trim().is_empty()
+                            && parse_transform_length(fallback).is_some()
+                    })
             }
-    out
+            _ => false,
+        };
+        if !valid {
+            return None;
+        }
+        return Some(crate::TransformLength {
+            value: crate::Dimension::Px(0.0),
+            expression: Some(value.to_string()),
+        });
+    }
+    let value = dimension_value(value);
+    (!matches!(value, crate::Dimension::Auto)).then_some(crate::TransformLength {
+        value,
+        expression: None,
+    })
 }
 
-fn rotate_x_matrix(angle: f32) -> [f32; 9] {
-    let (sin, cos) = angle.to_radians().sin_cos();
-    [1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, cos, -sin, 0.0, sin, cos]
+fn parse_transform_z_length(value: &str) -> Option<crate::TransformLength> {
+    // The Z coordinate is `<length>`, not `<length-percentage>`.
+    if value.contains('%') {
+        return None;
+    }
+    parse_transform_length(value)
 }
 
-fn rotate_y_matrix(angle: f32) -> [f32; 9] {
-    let (sin, cos) = angle.to_radians().sin_cos();
-    [cos, 0.0, sin, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, -sin, 0.0, cos]
+fn parse_transform_ops(value: &str) -> Option<Vec<crate::TransformOp>> {
+    let functions = transform_functions(value);
+    if functions.is_empty() {
+        return None;
     }
-
-fn rotate_z_matrix(angle: f32) -> [f32; 9] {
-    let (sin, cos) = angle.to_radians().sin_cos();
-    [cos, -sin, 0.0, sin, cos, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]
+    let mut operations = Vec::with_capacity(functions.len());
+    for (name, arguments) in functions {
+        let values = split_top_level(&arguments, ',')
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(str::trim)
+            .filter(|value| !value.is_empty())
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let operation = match name.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str() {
+            "translate" if (1..=2).contains(&values.len()) => {
+                let y = if let Some(value) = values.get(1) {
+                    parse_transform_length(value)?
+                } else {
+                    crate::TransformLength::px(0.0)
+                };
+                crate::TransformOp::Translate(
+                    parse_transform_length(values[0])?,
+                    y,
+                )
+            }
+            "translatex" if values.len() == 1 => crate::TransformOp::Translate(
+                parse_transform_length(values[0])?,
+                crate::TransformLength::px(0.0),
+            ),
+            "translatey" if values.len() == 1 => crate::TransformOp::Translate(
+                crate::TransformLength::px(0.0),
+                parse_transform_length(values[0])?,
+            ),
+            "translate3d" if values.len() == 3 => {
+                // Without perspective, translation along Z does not change the
+                // projection of the element's plane. Keep accepting it so the
+                // useful X/Y part of common compositor transforms is retained.
+                parse_transform_z_length(values[2])?;
+                crate::TransformOp::Translate(
+                    parse_transform_length(values[0])?,
+                    parse_transform_length(values[1])?,
+                )
+            }
+            "translatez" if values.len() == 1 => {
+                parse_transform_z_length(values[0])?;
+                crate::TransformOp::Matrix(crate::Affine2::IDENTITY)
+            }
+            "scale" if (1..=2).contains(&values.len()) => {
+                let x = scale_number(values[0])?;
+                crate::TransformOp::Scale(x, values.get(1).and_then(|value| scale_number(value)).unwrap_or(x))
+            }
+            "scalex" if values.len() == 1 => crate::TransformOp::Scale(scale_number(values[0])?, 1.0),
+            "scaley" if values.len() == 1 => crate::TransformOp::Scale(1.0, scale_number(values[0])?),
+            "scale3d" if values.len() == 3 => {
+                let x = scale_number(values[0])?;
+                let y = scale_number(values[1])?;
+                scale_number(values[2])?;
+                crate::TransformOp::Scale(x, y)
+            }
+            "scalez" if values.len() == 1 && scale_number(values[0]).is_some() => {
+                crate::TransformOp::Matrix(crate::Affine2::IDENTITY)
+            }
+            "rotate" | "rotatez" if values.len() == 1 => {
+                crate::TransformOp::Rotate(angle_degrees(values[0])?)
+            }
+            "rotatex" if values.len() == 1 => {
+                let radians = angle_degrees(values[0])?.to_radians();
+                crate::TransformOp::Scale(1.0, radians.cos())
+            }
+            "rotatey" if values.len() == 1 => {
+                let radians = angle_degrees(values[0])?.to_radians();
+                crate::TransformOp::Scale(radians.cos(), 1.0)
+            }
+            "rotate3d" if values.len() == 4 => {
+                let x = values[0].parse::<f32>().ok()?;
+                let y = values[1].parse::<f32>().ok()?;
+                let z = values[2].parse::<f32>().ok()?;
+                if !x.is_finite() || !y.is_finite() || !z.is_finite() {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                let angle = angle_degrees(values[3])?;
+                if x != 0.0 && y == 0.0 && z == 0.0 {
+                    crate::TransformOp::Scale(1.0, (angle * x.signum()).to_radians().cos())
+                } else if x == 0.0 && y != 0.0 && z == 0.0 {
+                    crate::TransformOp::Scale((angle * y.signum()).to_radians().cos(), 1.0)
+                } else if x == 0.0 && y == 0.0 && z != 0.0 {
+                    crate::TransformOp::Rotate(angle * z.signum())
+                } else {
+                    // A mixed 3D rotation axis cannot be represented by the
+                    // affine renderer without tracking Z between operations.
+                    return None;
+                }
+            }
+            "skew" if (1..=2).contains(&values.len()) => crate::TransformOp::Skew(
+                angle_degrees(values[0])?,
+                values.get(1).and_then(|value| angle_degrees(value)).unwrap_or(0.0),
+            ),
+            "skewx" if values.len() == 1 => crate::TransformOp::Skew(angle_degrees(values[0])?, 0.0),
+            "skewy" if values.len() == 1 => crate::TransformOp::Skew(0.0, angle_degrees(values[0])?),
+            "matrix" if values.len() == 6 => {
+                let numbers = values.iter().map(|value| value.parse::<f32>().ok()).collect::<Option<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                if numbers.iter().any(|value| !value.is_finite()) {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                crate::TransformOp::Matrix(crate::Affine2 {
+                    a: numbers[0], b: numbers[1], c: numbers[2],
+                    d: numbers[3], e: numbers[4], f: numbers[5],
+                })
+            }
+            "matrix3d" if values.len() == 16 => {
+                let numbers = values.iter().map(|value| value.parse::<f32>().ok()).collect::<Option<Vec<_>>>()?;
+                if numbers.iter().any(|value| !value.is_finite())
+                    || numbers[2] != 0.0 || numbers[3] != 0.0
+                    || numbers[6] != 0.0 || numbers[7] != 0.0
+                    || numbers[8] != 0.0 || numbers[9] != 0.0
+                    || numbers[10] != 1.0 || numbers[11] != 0.0
+                    || numbers[14] != 0.0 || numbers[15] != 1.0
+                {
+                    return None;
+                }
+                crate::TransformOp::Matrix(crate::Affine2 {
+                    a: numbers[0], b: numbers[1], c: numbers[4],
+                    d: numbers[5], e: numbers[12], f: numbers[13],
+                })
+            }
+            _ => return None,
+        };
+        operations.push(operation);
+    }
+    Some(operations)
 }
 
 fn angle_degrees(value: &str) -> Option<f32> {
@@ -3024,16 +3075,19 @@ fn angle_degrees(value: &str) -> Option<f32> {
         .strip_prefix("calc(")
         .and_then(|value| value.strip_suffix(')'))
     else {
-        return primitive(value);
+        return primitive(value).filter(|value| value.is_finite());
     };
-    if let Some((angle, factor)) = inner.split_once('*') {
-        return Some(primitive(angle)? * factor.trim().parse::<f32>().ok()?);
-    }
-    if let Some((angle, divisor)) = inner.split_once('/') {
+    let result = if let Some((angle, factor)) = inner.split_once('*') {
+        Some(primitive(angle)? * factor.trim().parse::<f32>().ok()?)
+    } else if let Some((angle, divisor)) = inner.split_once('/') {
         let divisor = divisor.trim().parse::<f32>().ok()?;
-        return (divisor != 0.0).then(|| primitive(angle).map(|angle| angle / divisor)).flatten();
-    }
+        (divisor != 0.0)
+            .then(|| primitive(angle).map(|angle| angle / divisor))
+            .flatten()
+    } else {
         primitive(inner)
+    };
+    result.filter(|value| value.is_finite())
 }
 
 fn parse_transform_origin(value: &str) -> Option<(crate::Dimension, crate::Dimension)> {
@@ -3061,8 +3115,12 @@ fn parse_transform_origin(value: &str) -> Option<(crate::Dimension, crate::Dimen
 }
 
 fn parse_individual_scale(style: &mut LayoutStyle, value: &str) {
-    if value.trim().eq_ignore_ascii_case("none") {
-        style.transform_scale = None;
+    if matches!(
+        value.trim().to_ascii_lowercase().as_str(),
+        "none" | "initial" | "unset" | "revert" | "revert-layer"
+    ) {
+        style.individual_scale = None;
+        set_containing_block_trigger(style, crate::CB_TRIGGER_SCALE, false);
         return;
     }
     let values: Vec<f32> = value
@@ -3072,8 +3130,23 @@ fn parse_individual_scale(style: &mut LayoutStyle, value: &str) {
         .collect();
     let Some(&x) = values.first() else { return };
     let y = values.get(1).copied().unwrap_or(x);
-    style.transform_scale = Some((x, y));
-    set_containing_block_trigger(style, crate::CB_TRIGGER_TRANSFORM, true);
+    style.individual_scale = Some((x, y));
+    set_containing_block_trigger(style, crate::CB_TRIGGER_SCALE, true);
+}
+
+fn parse_individual_rotate(style: &mut LayoutStyle, value: &str) {
+    let value = value.trim();
+    if matches!(
+        value.to_ascii_lowercase().as_str(),
+        "none" | "initial" | "unset" | "revert" | "revert-layer"
+    ) {
+        style.individual_rotate = None;
+        set_containing_block_trigger(style, crate::CB_TRIGGER_ROTATE, false);
+        return;
+    }
+    let Some(angle) = angle_degrees(value) else { return };
+    style.individual_rotate = Some(angle);
+    set_containing_block_trigger(style, crate::CB_TRIGGER_ROTATE, true);
 }
 
 fn parse_individual_translate(style: &mut LayoutStyle, value: &str) {
@@ -3137,43 +3210,50 @@ fn set_containing_block_trigger(style: &mut LayoutStyle, trigger: u16, enabled:
     }
 }
 
-/// Split a `transform` value into its `name(args)` functions, in source order.
-/// Tokenizes on parentheses (tracking depth so a nested `calc(...)` inside an
-/// argument stays intact); the function name is the trailing identifier run
-/// just before each `(`.
+/// Strictly split a `transform` value into `name(args)` functions in source
+/// order. Any non-whitespace between functions, missing delimiter, or
+/// unbalanced parenthesis invalidates the whole declaration.
 fn transform_functions(value: &str) -> Vec<(String, String)> {
     let mut out = Vec::new();
-    let mut rest = value;
-    while let Some(open) = rest.find('(') {
-        let name: String = rest[..open]
-            .chars()
-            .rev()
-            .take_while(|c| c.is_ascii_alphanumeric() || *c == '-')
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
-            .into_iter()
-            .rev()
-            .collect();
-        let after = &rest[open + 1..];
+    let bytes = value.as_bytes();
+    let mut cursor = 0usize;
+    while cursor < bytes.len() {
+        while cursor < bytes.len() && bytes[cursor].is_ascii_whitespace() {
+            cursor += 1;
+        }
+        if cursor == bytes.len() {
+            break;
+        }
+        let name_start = cursor;
+        while cursor < bytes.len()
+            && (bytes[cursor].is_ascii_alphanumeric() || bytes[cursor] == b'-')
+        {
+            cursor += 1;
+        }
+        if cursor == name_start || cursor >= bytes.len() || bytes[cursor] != b'(' {
+            return Vec::new();
+        }
+        let name = value[name_start..cursor].to_string();
+        cursor += 1;
+        let args_start = cursor;
         let mut depth = 1i32;
         let mut end = None;
-        for (i, c) in after.char_indices() {
+        for (offset, c) in value[cursor..].char_indices() {
             match c {
                 '(' => depth += 1,
                 ')' => {
                     depth -= 1;
                     if depth == 0 {
-                        end = Some(i);
+                        end = Some(cursor + offset);
                         break;
                     }
                 }
                 _ => {}
             }
         }
-        let Some(e) = end else { break };
-        if !name.is_empty() {
-            out.push((name, after[..e].to_string()));
-        }
-        rest = &after[e + 1..];
+        let Some(end) = end else { return Vec::new() };
+        out.push((name, value[args_start..end].to_string()));
+        cursor = end + 1;
     }
     out
 }
@@ -3183,9 +3263,14 @@ fn transform_functions(value: &str) -> Vec<(String, String)> {
 fn scale_number(s: &str) -> Option<f32> {
     let t = s.trim();
     if let Some(p) = t.strip_suffix('%') {
-        return p.trim().parse::<f32>().ok().map(|v| v / 100.0);
+        return p
+            .trim()
+            .parse::<f32>()
+            .ok()
+            .map(|value| value / 100.0)
+            .filter(|value| value.is_finite());
     }
-    t.parse::<f32>().ok()
+    t.parse::<f32>().ok().filter(|value| value.is_finite())
 }
 
 /// Parse a CSS grid track list (`min-content 1fr min-content`, `12.25rem
@@ -6879,6 +6964,37 @@ mod tests {
         assert!(!supports_declaration("display", "banana"));
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn transform_support_rejects_invalid_z_types_nonfinite_numbers_and_fake_math() {
+        for value in [
+            "translateZ(10px)",
+            "translate3d(1px, 2px, 3rem)",
+            "scale3d(1, 2, 3)",
+            "rotate3d(0, 0, 1, 45deg)",
+            "translateX(calc(10px + 5%))",
+            "translateX(var(--offset))",
+            "translateX(var(--offset, 10px))",
+        ] {
+            assert!(supports_declaration("transform", value), "{value}");
+        }
+        for value in [
+            "translateZ(10%)",
+            "translate3d(1px, 2px, 10%)",
+            "scale3d(1, 2, garbage)",
+            "scale3d(1, 2, NaN)",
+            "scale(NaN)",
+            "rotate(NaNdeg)",
+            "rotate(calc(1deg / 0))",
+            "rotate3d(NaN, 0, 1, 45deg)",
+            "translateX(garbage(10px))",
+            "translateX(calc(garbage))",
+            "translateX(var(x))",
+            "translateX(var(--x, garbage(1px)))",
+        ] {
+            assert!(!supports_declaration("transform", value), "{value}");
+        }
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn clip_path_polygon_supports_only_geometry_it_can_resolve() {
         assert!(supports_declaration(